Question

To err is human. Society is suffering from an inability to acknowledge as much.

For individuals, errors are painful. The trick, then, is to err well: to recognize mistakes and learn from them. Worryingly, humanity may be getting worse at admitting its mistakes.

Few enjoy the feeling of being caught out in an error. But real trouble starts when the desire to avoid a punishment leads to a refusal to deal with contrary evidence. Economists often assume that people are sensible. When faced with a new fact, these people should update their view of the world to take better decisions in future. Yet years of economic research confirms that people frequently disregard information that conflicts with their view of the world.

Why should that be? Last year Roland Benabou, of Princeton, presented a framework for thinking about the problem. In many ways, beliefs are like other economic goods. People spend time and resources building them, and get value from them: some beliefs make owners feel good and show their public identity; other beliefs provide value by shaping behavior—for example, religious asceticism(禁欲主义) can help one avoid unhealthy habits.

Because beliefs, however, are not simply tools for making good decisions, but are treasured in their own right, new information that challenges them is unwelcome. People often engage in “motivated reasoning” to manage such challenges. Mr Benabou classifies this into three categories. “Strategic ignorance” is when a believer avoids information offering conflicting evidence. In “reality denial”， troubling evidence is rationalized(合理化)：real estate investors might make up fanciful theories for why prices should behave unusually, and supporters of a disgraced politician might claim the negative news to be fake. And lastly, in “self­signalling”， the believer creates his own tools to interpret the facts in the way he wants: an unhealthy person, for example, might decide that going for a daily run proves he is well.

“Motivated reasoning” is a cognitive bias(偏见). Not all the errors it leads to are  costly: praising the performance of one's supported football team despite contradictory evidence does little harm. But when biases are broadly shared—within financial world or political parties—danger arises. Motivated reasoning helps explain why viewpoints polarize (两极分化) even as information is more easily available than ever before.

Work by Mr Benabou suggests that groupthink is highest when people within groups face a shared fate: when choosing to break from a group is unlikely to spare an individual the costs of the group's errors or bring much individual benefit. The incentive(动力) to engage in motivated reasoning is high as a result. Even as the fact on a particular issue is obvious, parties can still become increasingly polarized. That, in turn, can make it harder still for a member of one party to get any benefit from breaking from a group. Indeed, the group has an incentive to silence independent voices.

Public statements of regret are risky in a rigidly polarized world. Admissions of error can not only annoy partners but also provide opportunities for opponents. But it is rarely in the interest of those in the right to pretend that they are never wrong.

1.According to the passage, beliefs are similar to economic goods in that ________．

A. both are entertaining and valuable    B. both can be shaped by religious faith

C. both can reflect who the owners are    D. both promote religious development

2.Which of the following is an example of “self­signalling”？

A. A fan speaks highly of his team although it has just lost the game.

B. A man covers his ears when stealing a bell, believing the bell won't ring.

C. Supporters of Trump believe the news about his affairs with a lady is fake.

D. Suspected AIDS carriers refuse to be tested though it can be done for free.

3.What can be inferred from Paragraphs 6 and 7?

A. Polarization causes individuals to break from the group.

B. Richer sources of information decrease motivated reasoning.

C. Individuals with independent voices are dismissed from the group.

D. Individuals in a group engage in motivated reasoning for their own interests.

4.Which of the following opinions might the author agree with?

A. Denying errors is unavoidable.

B. Failure to admit errors is harmful.

C. Humans are getting better at erring well.

D. Wise people ignore contrary worldviews.

Answer

1.C

2.B

3.D

4.B

【解析】

本文是议论文，我们都会犯错，正确的态度是勇于承认错误，认识错误并从中吸取教训。我们不能假装不犯错，但现实生活中人类在承认错误方面越来越糟糕。

1.推理判断题。根据第四段In many ways, beliefs are like other economic goods. People spend time and resources building them, and get value from them: some beliefs make owners feel good and show their public identity; other beliefs provide value by shaping behavior可知信念和经济商品的相似之处：人们花费时间和资源来构建它们，并从中获得价值。它们都能反映主人的身份和价值，故选C.

2.推理判断题。根据第五段in “self­signalling”，the believer creates his own tools to interpret the facts in the way he wants: an unhealthy person, for example, might decide that going for a daily run proves he is well.可知self­signalling指的是信徒创造他自己的工具，以他想要的方式解释事实，并且举了不健康的人用跑步来掩盖事实的例子。选项中B项掩耳盗铃的例子就属于“self­signalling”，故选B.

3.推理判断题。根据第六段Motivated reasoning helps explain why viewpoints polarize (两极分化) even as information is more easily available than ever before.第七段that groupthink is highest when people within groups face a shared fate. That, in turn, can make it harder still for a member of one party to get any benefit from breaking from a group.可知动机推理有助于解释观点两极化更容易得到有效信息，更能在面临共同的命运时，不脱离群体，并且为自己的利益努力。故选D.

4.推理判断题。根据第二段The trick, then, is to err well: to recognize mistakes and learn from them. Worryingly, humanity may be getting worse at admitting its mistakes.最后一句But it is rarely in the interest of those in the right to pretend that they are never wrong. 可知我们应该认识错误并从中吸取教训。令人担忧的是，人类在承认错误方面可能越来越糟糕。我们不能假装不犯错误，由此可见作者认为不承认错误是有害的。故选B.